Environmental pollution by plastic waste was first reported in the 1970s (Carpenter and Smith, 1972). 32, 11751180. (2018). Over 90 microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi, have been known to degrade petroleum-based plastics (Jumaah, 2017) mostly in vitro condition. (2018a). Mater. (2006) reported that the P. putida CA-3 (NCIMB 41162) uses styrene oil after pyrolysis as the sole source of carbon and energy to form PHAs. Table 1. Consequently, they have become ubiquitous in the global economy (Barnes et al., 2009; Andrady, 2011; Hidalgo-Ruz et al., 2012). The genetic mechanism for the pathways enabling EG metabolism has been well demonstrated in P. putida. Environ. Li et al. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0183984, Takei, D., Washio, K., and Morikawa, M. (2008). Sci.Technol. Macromol. Although no plastic is entirely protected against UV rays and radiation, many plastics offer excellent levels of UV resistance that increase lifespan, prevent elongation, and fight the effects of photodegradation such as chalking, loss of (2020). Biodegradation of polystyrene, poly(methyl methacrylate), and phenol formaldehyde. 84:e02773-17. A perspective on novel polyurethane materials with desired structures and properties combined with exceptional stability is also provided. There are many ways polyurethanes can chemically degrade. Danso et al. Polym. doi: 10.1016/j.ibiod.2013.04.002, Ahmed, T., Shahid, M., Azeem, F., Rasul, I., Shah, A. New Biotechnol. Engineered Thermobifida fusca cutinase with increased activity on polyester substrates. 132, 6977. 43, 4347. Pseudomonas putida strain AJ was reported to use vinyl chloride monomers as carbon source for growth (Verce et al., 2000). 5:eaax1157. In P. putida strain JM37, the activity of two additional pathways, namely, Gcl and GlcB, leads to rapid metabolism of EG without accumulation of the intermediates and/or oxalic acid (Muckschel et al., 2012). Poll. P. putida strain JM37 was able to utilize EG as a sole source of carbon and energy. 123, 582593. Chemosphere 212, 262271. doi: 10.1007/s13233-012-0026-1, Sielicki, M., Focht, D. D., and Martin, J. P. (1978). These find use as reactive building blocks in the production of agro-, aroma-, and polymer chemicals, or pharmaceuticals (Sajtos, 1991; Mattioda and Christidis, 2000; Yue et al., 2012). Int. Biodegradation of polyurethane coatings by hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria. Bioremed. The sodium azide was added to the sea water to Fungi isolated from soil such as those from Aureobasidium pullulans, Cladosporium sp., Curvularia senegalensis, and Fusarium solani were reported to degrade polyesterpolyurethane (Crabbe et al., 1994). Polym. Data and information contained in the Polymer Selector (Lee and Chung, 2009); fungal cutinases from Fusarium solani (Alisch-Mark et al., 2006; ONeill et al., 2007), Penicillium citrinum (Liebminger et al., 2007), and Aspergillus oryzae, Humicola insolens (Ronqvist et al., 2009); and those from actinomycetes, Saccharomonospora viridis (Kawai et al., 2017), T. fusca (Brueckner et al., 2008), Thermobifida cellulosilytica (Herrero Acero et al., 2011), Thermobifida alba (Ribitsch et al., 2012b); carboxylesterases (Billig et al., 2010) and Esterases (Thermobifida halotolerans) (Ribitsch et al., 2012a). In vitro degradation of low-density polyethylene by new bacteria from larvae of the Greater Wax Moth, Galleria melonella. The biodegradation mechanisms of petro-plastics are likely related to the types of bonds in the polymeric chains (since the active sites of related enzymes are individual for any specific bond). 
40, 24332437. 7040 N. Austin Avenue, Niles, IL 60714 . Crit. It is known that polyurethane and vinyl materials used for both interior and exterior applications are subject to photo-degradation when exposed to ultraviolet light. This suggests that biodegradation of LDPE requires multiple microbes. 41, 42184244. Degrad. 50, 3340. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2017.07.044, Rajandas, H., Parimannan, S., Sathasivam, K., Ravichandran, M., and Yin, L. S. (2012). 198:33. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. The depolymerization stopped when gut microbes were suppressed with antibiotic gentamicin, indicating gut-microbial dependence, similar to observations recorded for PS degradation by T. molitor larvae. 8, 183195. J. Hygiene Environ. Pollut. Res. Pollut. Efficient biodegradation of polyethylene (HDPE) waste by the plastic-eating lesser waxworm (Achroia grisella). White and wonderful? doi: 10.1021/es2031505, Ho, B. T., Roberts, T. K., and Lucas, S. (2018). J. Appl. Many studies have reported on the thermal and photo degradation of PVC (Braun, 1975; Owen, 1976, 2012; Decker, 1984; Seppala et al., 1991). Chemosphere 262:127818. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127818, Yang, S.-S., Brandon, A. M., Andrew Flanagan, J. C., Yang, J., Ning, D., Cai, S.-Y. Biodegrad. Polym. 
Biotransform. Microbial degradation pathway of polyurethane. Petroleum-derived (petro-)plastics have many desirable characteristics. Surface Properties of The Polyurethanes Before UV Irradiation The growing amount of plastic waste has become a global concern. doi: 10.1128/AEM.02062-12, Muller, R.-J., Kleeberg, I., and Deckwer, W.-D. (2001). Further, many strains of Pseudomonas have been reported to degrade a wide-range of recalcitrant compounds and/or plastics such as PE, PS, PP, and PVC (Giacomucci et al., 2019). Trans. Lett. 2013:365380. doi: 10.1155/2013/365380, Howard, G. T. (2002). (2016) demonstrated that PET-digesting enzyme labeled as PETase, converts PET to mono(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalic acid (MHET), with minimal amounts of terephthalic acid (TPA) and bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-TPA as secondary products (Figure 4). doi: 10.1080/07388551.2017.1355293, Hoque, M. E., Ye, T. J., Yong, L. C., and Mohd Dahlan, K. Z. Polyvinyl chloride biodegradation by Pseudomonas citronellolis and Bacillus flexus. doi: 10.1016/S0922-338X(97)82013-2, Nechwatal, A., Blokesch, A., Nicolai, M., Krieg, M., Kolbe, A., Wolf, M., et al. Glycolic acid production using ethylene glycol-oxidizing microorganisms. Biodegradation of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera Tenebrionidae) larvae. Appl. doi: 10.1128/AEM.59.11.3695-3700.1993, Carpenter, E. J., and Smith, K. L. Jr. (1972). Appl. The use of the blends facilitates adhesion of the microorganisms to the surface of the polymer and acts as a co-metabolite (Cacciari et al., 1993; Zuchowska et al., 1998; Ramis et al., 2004; Kaczmarek et al., 2005; Morancho et al., 2006). 27, 205222. Sci. Microb. Bacteria in the genera Pseudomonas and Vibrio, and the fungus Aspergillus niger have been reported to degrade PP (Cacciari et al., 1993). 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These plastics find a range of applications including food packaging, textiles, lab equipment, and automotive components. J. Environ. Environ. doi: 10.1002/biot.201000391, Song, Y., Qiu, R., Hu, J., Li, X., Zhang, X., Chen, Y., et al. The A variety of bacterial strains were able to use polyester-polyurethane polymers as carbon, nitrogen and energy source for growth, e.g., P. aeruginosa (Kay et al., 1991), Corynebacterium sp. Biodeterior. Also, additives introduced into plastics such as plasticizers, contribute to fungal nutrients for growth. Environ. UV radiation causes photooxidative degradation which results in breaking of the polymer chains, produces free radical and reduces the molecular weight, causing deterioration of mechanical properties and leading to useless materials, after an Acad. The results above show that one process for polyurethane coating degradation under QUV exposure occurs through the formation of blisters. The development and breakage of blisters damages the coating surface layer by layer and pigments are then exposed at the coating surface. 123, 428435. Biotechnol. A polyesterase capable of hydrolyzing aromatic polyesters (primarily PET) was first reported from Thermobifida fusca by a German research group (Mller et al., 2005). 30, 176179. Microbial assisted high impact polystyrene (HIP) degradation. Sci. AHs forms the key enzyme in the alkane hydroxylase system pathway, which are involved in PE degradation in -oxidation pathway and known to degrade linear alkanes (Jeon and Kim, 2015). doi: 10.3390/ijms10093722, Torikai, A., and Hasegawa, H. (1999). doi: 10.1016/S0964-8305(02)00051-3, Howard, G. T., and Blake, R. C. (1998). 51, 74767485. Chemical and physical characterization and isotopic tests. doi: 10.1016/S0189-7241(15)30078-3, Ojeda, T. (2013). Microbial oxidation reduces the number of carbonyl-groups due to the formation of carboxylic acids. 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The determination of the suitability of this information Cloning and expression in Escherichia coli of apolyurethane-degrading enzyme from Pseudomonas fluorescens. Front. However, some of the ingredients in Environ. Photo and biodegradation of high volume thermoplastics, Acta polytechnica scandinavica. Bacterial species, such as Bacillus spp. Environ. Biodegradability of plastics. Microbiol. (1994). Polym. 10:489. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00489, Yang, J., Yang, Y., Wu, W. M., Zhao, J., and Jiang, L. (2014). Sci. doi: 10.1002/1097-4628(20000822)77:8<1643::AID-APP1>3.0.CO;2-8, Xu, J., Cui, Z., Nie, K., Cao, H., Jiang, M., Xu, H., et al. Front. 185, 352364. The lignin degrading system includes a group of peroxidases known as Ligninases, which catalyze the initial oxidative depolymerization of lignin polymers (Bumpus and Aust, 1987; Bumpus et al., 1988; Shah et al., 1992). Alkane hydroxylases (AHs) are the key enzymes involved in aerobic degradation of alkanes by bacteria. 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S., and Sakharkar, K. R. (2012). (2020b). The fusion of TA2 to the cutinase (Tcur1278) accelerated the degradation of polyester-polyurethane nanoparticles by a factor of 6.6 relative to the wild-type Tcur1278. Polym. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.7b00062, Haines, J. R., and Alexander, M. (1974). 2, 200204. 69, 2458. 46, 64356443. Polymers with hydrolysable ester bonds in their backbones, such as PET and PUR, are more susceptible to biodegradation than polymers with carbon chain backbones, like PE, PS, PP and PVC. The resulting smaller polymer fragments are susceptible to biodegradation and, abiotic degradation precedes biodegradation. Microplastics pose a major problem to environment and human health, since the particles are shown to attract and store toxic compounds such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and bisphenols (Bouwmeester et al., 2015). These polymers are susceptible to hydrolytic attack of e.g., ester or amide bonds (Muller et al., 2001). Figure 6. (2019). doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aax1157, Bhatia, S. K., Gurav, R., Choi, T. R., Jung, H. R., Yang, S. Y., Moon, Y. M., et al. (2016). doi: 10.1007/978-94-009-5618-6_3, DeLey, J., and Kersters, K. (1964). The degradation was conducted in water or alkaline borate buffer (pH 10) at 37C, 60C and 85C from 96 h to 168 h. Shah, A. Polym. Biodegradation of low density polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and urea formaldehyde resin buried under soil for over 32 years. Rev. XPS and FTIR analysis indicated that urea and urethane group concentrations increased in the coating upon exposure. (2019). Ingenieur Technik 74, 14961500. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. Res. Utilization of alcohols by Hansenula miso. Polym. (2012a). J. Polym. A two-step chemo-biotechnological conversion of polystyrene to a biodegradable thermoplastic. 43, 3741. PE usually has a semi-crystalline structure and is extremely resistant to biodegradation. Polym. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.7b01330, Keywords: synthetic polymers, polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polyurethane, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, cutinase, Citation: Mohanan N, Montazer Z, Sharma PK and Levin DB (2020) Microbial and Enzymatic Degradation of Synthetic Plastics. Peng et al. 24, 911919. Polym. Stab. 2.5.7. Baker, P. J., Poultney, C., Liu, Z., Gross, R. A., and Montclare, J. K. (2012). Biol. In particular, numerous studies have focused on the photolytic degradation of PUs under UV radiation because photo-oxidation and other dissociation reactions by UV light are believed to be responsible for the yellowing of PU coatings . Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyurethane (PU) plastics have heteroatoms in the main chain. Stab. Stab. Therefore, these elastomeric systems are used in a diverse range of indoor, outdoor, underwater and biomedical applications. Plastic debris in the environment is degraded in nature by photo-, bio-, and thermo-oxidative depolymerization as well as friction (Barnes et al., 2009; Browne et al., 2011). (2013). Biodegradation of polyethylene and plastic mixtures in mealworms (Larvae of Tenebrio molitor) and effects on the gut microbiome. Further analyses of the genes and/or gene products (enzymes) that hydrolyze the high molecular weight petro-plastic polymers may lead to greater understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms of biodegradation. Complete genome sequence of Bacillus sp.YP1, a polyethylene-degrading bacterium from waxworms gut. Thermoplastics, in Handbook of Plastics, Elastomers and Composites, 4th Edn, ed. Biochim. Polym. View All Commercially Available Polymer Grades with Good UV Resistance, ABS/PC Blend - Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene/Polycarbonate Blend, ASA/PC Blend - Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate/Polycarbonate Blend, Ionomer (Ethylene-Methyl Acrylate Copolymer), PC/PBT Blend - Polycarbonate/Polybutylene Terephthalate Blend, ASA/PVC Blend - Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate/Polyvinyl Chloride Blend, MABS - Transparent Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene, PA 66, Impact Modified, 15-30% Glass Fiber, PC (Polycarbonate) 20-40% Glass Fiber, Flame Retardant, PET, 30/35% Glass Fiber-reinforced, Impact Modified, PE-UHMW - Polyethylene -Ultra High Molecular Weight, Introducing pigments which effectively screen out the rays, or, Neutralizing the UV energy within the compound and dissipate it harmlessly. With increased activity on polyester substrates and urethane group concentrations increased in the 1970s ( Carpenter and,... 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